French Colonization (1874-1954)

Although French colonization officially started in 1874, the French and other Europeans had as early as 1516. Portuguese ships bringing missionaries and traders were the first to arrive in Vietnam; French missionaries cae in the 18th century. British, and French entrepreneurs also attempted to set up businesses and trade arrangements during the 18th and 19th centuries, concentrating primarily on the Mekong Delta.

Controlling their colony was not easy for the French and pockets of opposition scattered throughout the north which had been fighting against Tu Duc, were difficult to control. During the "Pacification Period" (1859-1897), the French attempted to gain control over the Vietnamese rebel groups and the Chinese, who in 1883, decided they would also try to annex Vietnam. Fighting was most pronounced in Tonkin and in the central part of Vietnam known as Annam. This period lasted for 30 years, during which many Vietnamese were killed. Leaders of the remaining opposition groups eventually realized the futitility of fighting against the perseverance and modern weaponry of the French.

French colonization of Vietnam had the goal of economic profit. However, Catholic missionaries felt a moral obligation to try and convert all the people of Asia to Catholicism and some individuals within the colonial government wanted to spread French "culture" and introduced French literature, language, and history. Thus, political, economic and cultural affairs were intertwined.

After the "Pacification Period," Governor-General Paul Doumer focused his energy on "modernizing" Vietnam with a network of communications and the construction of railroads, bridges, and highways. In addition to moving the capital to Hanoi, Doumer also introduced forced labor, heavy taxes, and a centralized government. These "improvements" were designed to maximize profits in the colony. They did not improve life for the Vietnamese peasants.

The Vietnamese either collaborated with the French or remained poorly paid laborers. Collaborators joined the lower levels of the French bureaucracy, made a decent wage, and benefited from the partnership. Many Vietnamese Catholics were especially trusted by the French

Although Vietnam was far from France, it was affected by both the world economy and French politics. At times, during colonization, the tight security maintained over the Vietnamese people was loosened enough to allow some freedom of the press and a promise of change. During 1907 and 1908, Vietnamese confidence and nationalism grew as new Vietnamese poetry and literature, as well as Vietnamese opinions of colonization, appeared in materials printed at the schools and in the press. These actions led to what is known as the Free School Movement where quoc ngu, Romanized Vietnamese, was taught and the Vietnamese, rather than the French or Chinese, version of the country's history was taught. The movement grew quickly before it was closed by the French in 1908.

Nationalism of the sort spread by the Free School Movement was squelched by the French as soon as it became a threat. After 1908, overt opposition in Vietnam was minimal. In 1927, a Nationalist Party was formed in Vietnam but this was repressed and many of its members moved to South China. Generally speaking, conditions were strictly controlled within Vietnam, and the radical and outspoken opponents to colonization were those who had left the country to be educated in France. They were able to travel and study, discussing the future of Vietnam and methods through which they could overthrow the colonial government.

During these travels, young Vietnamese intellectuals were first introduced to the doctrine of Marxism-Leninism. This doctrine was attractive to colonized people all over the world because of the Russian communist leade,r Lenin's, call for the end to colonization. Communism also seemed like a good alternative to the absolute monarchy and unfair landowning practices which had caused Vietnam so many problems throughout the 18th and 19th centuries. The most famous of the Vietnamese student-intellectuals was Ho Chi Minh, who traveled not only to France, but to China, Russia, and throughout Europe, creating his own brand of communism in Hong Kong. Soon communists and nationalists joined together in the Indochinese Communist Party (ICP).

The ICP saw its opportunity to make headway in Vietnam during World War II when most of Southeast Asia was occupied by the Japanese. France avoided a direct confrontation with the Japanese by collaborating with them in Vietnam and the government was allowed to remain in power as long as the Japanese were able to move arms and supplies through the country to other areas. Plans changed in March 1945 as things grew more difficult for the Japanese in other areas of the world. They stated a coup d'etat against the French government and gained full control of Vietnam. By August, however, the Japanese surrendered after the Americans bombed the Japanese cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki.

In 1941, after 30 years of exile, Ho Chi Minh returned to Vietnam and started a Communist party that became know as the Viet Minh. On the day of the Japanese surrender, the Viet Minh made a deal with the Japanese. They allowed the Japanese soldiers to leave peacefully, and the Japanese gave their arms to the Vietnamese before the return of the French. In August 1945, the Viet Minh launched a revolution which brought them to power. Emperor Bao Dai abdicated on August 25, 1945. On September 2, Ho Chi Minh proclaimed the independence of Vietnam and the creation of the Democratic Republic of Vietnam. Bao Dai handed over to the Viet Minh the sword and seal which were the traditional symbols of power.